Research library
The research library
Every primary source behind a claim on this site, tier-graded for provenance and tagged for the strength of the evidence it carries.
- Sources indexed
- 221
- Peptides covered
- 44
- Tier 1 share
- 61%
- Matching filter
- 33
F·Filter
Reset allT1·Peer-primary literature
Randomized trials, peer-reviewed primary studies, and meta-analyses — the load-bearing layer of the corpus.
20 sources
- 2026Mechanisticmoderate
GIPR:GCGR co-agonism restores normal weight in obese rodents
Perez-Tilve D, Zhang F, Zhang Y, +6 · Molecular Metabolism
BWB3054, a dual GIPR:GCGR co-agonist designed to attenuate GLP-1R signalling >100-fold, normalised body weight in diet-induced obese mice and rats and matched retatrutide's weight effect — including in GLP-1R-knockout mice — suggesting the GIP and glucagon arms of the triple-agonist can deliver the bulk of the obesity effect without GLP-1R-driven gastrointestinal liability.
- 2021Mechanisticmoderaten=224
Immune-Based Prediction of COVID-19 Severity and Chronicity Decoded Using Machine Learning
Patterson BK, Guevara-Coto J, Yogendra R, +7 · Frontiers in Immunology
A 224-individual immune-profiling study that documented PASC-distinctive elevations in CCL5/RANTES, IL-2, IL-4, CCL3, IL-6, IL-10, IFN-γ, and VEGF alongside expanded CD14+/CD16+/CCR5+ monocyte subsets — the most-cited immune-signature characterisation in the early PASC literature, and structurally separate from the same group's subsequent treatment claims.
- 2021Mechanisticmoderaten=49
Persistent clotting protein pathology in Long COVID/Post-Acute Sequelae of COVID-19 (PASC) is accompanied by increased levels of antiplasmin
Pretorius E, Vlok M, Venter C, +4 · Cardiovascular Diabetology
The foundational microclot-in-PASC observation paper — fluorescent staining and proteomics on plasma from 11 PASC patients identified amyloid fibrin deposits resistant to trypsin-mediated fibrinolysis, with α2-antiplasmin elevated approximately eightfold within the resistant pellet versus healthy controls.
- 2018Mechanisticmoderate
Selective and membrane-permeable small molecule inhibitors of nicotinamide N-methyltransferase reverse high fat diet-induced obesity in mice
Neelakantan H, Vance V, Wetzel MD, +5 · Biochemical Pharmacology
Eleven days of subcutaneous 5-Amino-1MQ at 20 mg/kg three times daily produced approximately 5% body weight loss and a roughly 35% reduction in epididymal white adipose tissue mass in diet-induced-obese mice — the pharmacological replication of the Kraus 2014 antisense-knockdown phenotype that anchors every subsequent NNMT-inhibitor claim.
- 2017Mechanisticmoderate
GABA, Selank, and Olanzapine Affect the Expression of Genes Involved in GABAergic Neurotransmission in IMR-32 Cells
Filatova E, Kasian A, Kolomin T, +8 · Frontiers in Pharmacology
Selank alone produced no change in GABAergic gene expression in IMR-32 cells; the effect appeared only in combination with GABA or olanzapine — the cleanest Western-indexed mechanism paper showing Selank as a co-modulator rather than a primary releaser.
- 2013Mechanisticmoderate
Evaluation of metabolically stabilized angiotensin IV analogs as procognitive/antidementia agents
McCoy AT, Benoist CC, Wright JW, +6 · Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics
Dihexa restored cognitive performance in scopolamine-impaired and aged rats, distributed effectively to brain after oral administration, and produced marked synaptogenic activity in hippocampal cultures — the foundational paper for everything that followed.
- 2010Mechanisticmoderate
Cardioprotection by a nonerythropoietic, tissue-protective peptide mimicking the 3D structure of erythropoietin
Ueba H, Brines M, Yamin M, +5 · PNAS
The 11-amino-acid helix B surface peptide that became ARA-290 inhibits TNF-α-induced cardiomyocyte apoptosis by approximately 80% and reduces in-vivo cardiac apoptosis by approximately 70% in a hamster dilated-cardiomyopathy model — extending the IRR mechanism into a cardiac-protection indication that did not progress to clinical development.
- 2008Mechanisticmoderate
Pentadecapeptide BPC 157, in clinical trials as a therapy for inflammatory bowel disease (PL14736), is effective in the healing of colocutaneous fistulas in rats: role of the nitric oxide-system
Klicek R, Sever M, Radic B, +17 · Journal of Pharmacological Sciences
BPC-157 accelerated closure of colon-to-skin fistulas in rats whether given by injection or orally; corticosteroids — the conventional comparator — worsened healing.
- 2008Mechanisticmoderate
PepT1-mediated tripeptide KPV uptake reduces intestinal inflammation
Dalmasso G, Charrier-Hisamuddin L, Nguyen HTT, +3 · Gastroenterology
KPV enters epithelial and immune cells through PepT1, suppresses NF-κB at nanomolar concentrations, and reduces colitis severity in two independent mouse models — the foundational paper for the entire current case for KPV in inflammatory bowel disease.
- 2008Mechanisticmoderate
Melanocortin-derived tripeptide KPV has anti-inflammatory potential in murine models of inflammatory bowel disease
Kannengiesser K, Maaser C, Heidemann J, +7 · Inflammatory Bowel Diseases
KPV given orally rescued every animal in the MC1Re/e DSS-colitis arm from death — demonstrating that the tripeptide's anti-inflammatory activity does not require a functional melanocortin-1 receptor and runs in parallel to the Dalmasso PepT1-transport mechanism.
- 2007Mechanisticmoderate
Thymosin beta4 induces adult epicardial progenitor mobilization and neovascularization
Smart N, Risebro CA, Melville AAD, +4 · Nature
Thymosin β4 stimulated outgrowth from quiescent adult epicardial explants, restoring pluripotency and triggering differentiation into fibroblasts, smooth muscle cells, and endothelial cells — the second foundational Nature paper that drove the cardiac-repair clinical-development arc.
- 2007Mechanisticmoderate
Non-clinical pharmacology and safety evaluation of TH9507, a human growth hormone-releasing factor analogue
Ferdinandi ES, Brazeau P, High K, +3 · Basic and Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology
The preclinical design and characterization paper for tesamorelin — TH9507's hexenoyl modification of native GHRH conferred DPP-IV resistance and a 21–45 minute half-life in dogs, the engineering moves that enabled the clinical-trial program.
- 2006Mechanisticmoderaten=8
Pulsatile Secretion of Growth Hormone (GH) Persists during Continuous Stimulation by CJC-1295, a Long-Acting GH-Releasing Hormone Analog
Ionescu M, Frohman LA · Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism
After a single subcutaneous dose, CJC-1295 elevated trough GH by 7.5-fold and IGF-I by 45% while leaving the frequency and amplitude of GH pulses unchanged — a continuous GHRH signal that does not flatten physiological pulsatility.
- 2006Mechanisticmoderate
Achilles detachment in rat and stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157: promoted tendon-to-bone healing and opposed corticosteroid aggravation
Krivic A, Anic T, Seiwerth S, +2 · Journal of Orthopaedic Research
Tendon-to-bone — a tissue interface that does not heal spontaneously after sharp transection in rats — was functionally and biomechanically restored by intraperitoneal BPC-157, including in animals concurrently treated with corticosteroids that worsened healing alone.
- 2005Mechanisticmoderate
Semax, an ACTH(4-10) analogue with nootropic properties, activates dopaminergic and serotoninergic brain systems in rodents
Eremin KO, Kudrin VS, Saransaari P, +4 · Neurochemical Research
Semax did not move dopamine on its own, but pretreatment dramatically enhanced amphetamine-induced dopamine release — a neuromodulatory amplifier rather than a primary releaser.
- 2004Mechanisticmoderate
Thymosin beta4 activates integrin-linked kinase and promotes cardiac cell migration, survival and cardiac repair
Bock-Marquette I, Saxena A, White MD, +2 · Nature
Thymosin β4 promoted myocyte migration and survival through an integrin-linked-kinase / Akt pathway and improved cardiac function in mice after coronary artery ligation — the mechanistic foundation for everything that followed in the cardiac-repair literature.
- 2003Mechanisticmoderate
Epithalon peptide induces telomerase activity and telomere elongation in human somatic cells
Khavinson VKh, Bondarev IE, Butyugov AA · Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine
In telomerase-negative human fetal fibroblasts, Epithalon induced expression of the telomerase catalytic subunit, enzymatic activity, and telomere elongation — the foundational mechanistic claim that anchors the entire modern Epitalon literature.
- 2001Mechanisticmoderate
The Effects of Human GH and Its Lipolytic Fragment (AOD9604) on Lipid Metabolism Following Chronic Treatment in Obese Mice and β3-AR Knock-Out Mice
Heffernan M, Summers RJ, Thorburn A, +4 · Endocrinology
Both hGH and AOD-9604 upregulated β3-adrenergic-receptor expression and produced weight loss in obese wild-type mice, but neither compound sustained those effects in β3-AR knockout animals — the experiment that localised AOD-9604's lipolytic mechanism to the β3 channel.
- 2000Mechanisticmoderate
Metabolic studies of a synthetic lipolytic domain (AOD9604) of human growth hormone
Ng FM, Sun J, Sharma L, +3 · Hormone Research
Nineteen days of oral 500 µg/kg/day AOD-9604 in obese Zucker rats reduced body-weight gain by more than half versus control (15.8 vs. 35.6 g), increased ex vivo adipose lipolytic activity, and produced no detectable insulin-sensitivity decrement under euglycemic clamp — the foundational preclinical paper for the molecule.
- 1978Mechanisticmoderate
The delta EEG (sleep)-inducing peptide (DSIP). XI. Amino-acid analysis, sequence, synthesis and activity of the nonapeptide
Schoenenberger GA, Maier PF, Tobler HJ, +2 · Pflügers Archiv
Synthetic DSIP, given to recipient rabbits, reproduced the original blood-fraction's delta- and spindle-EEG-enhancing activity — a 35% delta-power increase in neocortex and limbic cortex versus controls.
T2·Peer-secondary literature
Peer-reviewed reviews and cohort/observational work — context, not bedrock.
13 sources
- 2026Mechanisticmoderate
Semaglutide Reverses Ectopic Lipid Accumulation, Impaired Myocardial Perfusion Reserve, and Diastolic Dysfunction in a Mouse Model of Cardiometabolic Heart Disease
Skacel TP, Saleh NR, Pavelec CM, +3 · JACC Basic to Translational Science
In a pair-fed mouse design that isolates weight-independent effects, semaglutide reversed obesity-induced cardiometabolic heart disease — reducing proinflammatory epicardial adipose, ectopic lipid, and myocardial fibrosis, and restoring myocardial perfusion reserve and diastolic strain — while pair-fed controls matched for reduced caloric intake did not.
- 2020Mechanisticmoderate
Predominance of Nootropic or Anxiolytic Effects of Selank, Semax, and Noopept Peptides Depending on the Route of Administration to BALB/c and C57BL/6 Mice
Vasileva EV, Kondrakhin EA, Abdullina AA, +2 · Neurochemical Journal
The Zakusov Institute's mouse-strain replication of the Manchenko 2010 route-dissociation finding, extended to three peptides (Selank, Semax, Noopept) across two routes (i.p. vs i.n.) and two genetic backgrounds (BALB/c, C57BL/6). In BALB/c — but not in C57BL/6 — anxiolytic efficacy is higher after intraperitoneal injection while nootropic efficacy is higher after intranasal administration.
- 2020Mechanisticmoderate
The effect of pentadecapeptide BPC 157 on hippocampal ischemia/reperfusion injuries in rats
Vukojevic J, Vrdoljak B, Malekinusic D, +8 · Brain and Behavior
The Sikiric Zagreb group's bilateral-carotid-clamp stroke model in Wistar rats: 10 µg/kg BPC 157 applied as a topical 1 mL bath 30 seconds after a 20-minute reperfusion start prevented hippocampal red-neuron death, restored Morris water maze / beam-walk / lateral-push performance, and shifted the NO-synthase gene-expression panel toward the cytoprotective constitutive isoforms (Nos3, Nos1 up; Nos2 down) — the corpus's load-bearing post-2018 mechanistic candidate for BPC-157 in stroke.
- 2020Mechanisticmoderate
The mitochondria-targeted peptide SS-31 binds lipid bilayers and modulates surface electrostatics as a key component of its mechanism of action
Mitchell W, Ng EA, Tamucci JD, +9 · Journal of Biological Chemistry
Biophysical and molecular-dynamics analysis showed SS-31 partitions into the membrane interfacial region with affinity proportional to surface charge, does not destabilise bilayer structure, and modulates surface electrostatics — refining the Birk 2013 cardiolipin-binding mechanism into a broader 'membrane electrostatic modulation' framework.
- 2017Mechanisticmoderate
Orally Targeted Delivery of Tripeptide KPV via Hyaluronic Acid-Functionalized Nanoparticles Efficiently Alleviates Ulcerative Colitis
Xiao B, Xu Z, Viennois E, +6 · Molecular Therapy
Hyaluronic-acid-functionalised polymeric nanoparticles delivered KPV to inflamed colonic tissue at a 12,000-fold lower effective concentration than the free tripeptide and accelerated mucosal healing in DSS colitis — proof-of-concept that the KPV translational problem may be delivery rather than activity.
- 2016Mechanisticmoderaten=30
Selank administration affects the expression of some genes involved in GABAergic neurotransmission
Volkova A, Shadrina M, Kolomin T, +4 · Frontiers in Pharmacology
Forty-five genes changed expression 1 hour after a single intranasal 300 µg/kg dose of Selank in rat frontal cortex, with strong positive correlation (r=0.86) to GABA's own effect pattern; by 3 hours, Selank uniquely drove a 128-fold increase in hypocretin (Hcrt) expression — a candidate explanation for why Selank does not produce the sedation that benzodiazepines do.
- 2010Mechanisticmoderate
The nootropic and analgesic effects of Semax given via different routes
Manchenko DM, Glazova NYu, Levitskaya NG, +3 · Neuroscience and Behavioral Physiology
The Manchenko / Glazova / Levitskaya route-dissociation paper: intraperitoneal Semax produces both nootropic and analgesic effects in white rats with different dose-response curves, while intranasal Semax produces a stronger nootropic effect than i.p. but no analgesic effect at all — the operational basis for Semax's clinical nasal-drop route convention.
- 2003Mechanisticmoderate
The optimizing action of the synthetic peptide Selank on a conditioned active avoidance reflex in rats
Kozlovskii II, Danchev ND · Neuroscience and Behavioral Physiology
Selank at 300 µg/kg significantly activated learning in rats with initially poor learning ability, with effects visible after the first dose on training day 1; in normal-learning rats the peak effect appeared on day 3 of repeated administration. The cognitive-optimization companion to the anxiolytic mechanism papers.
- 2002Mechanisticmoderate
Effects of Selank on behavioral reactions and activities of plasma enkephalin-degrading enzymes in mice with different phenotypes of emotional and stress reactions
Sokolov OYu, Meshavkin VK, Kost NV, +1 · Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine
The bridge between Kost 2001 in vitro mechanism and Zozulya 2008 clinical biomarker: in BALB/c mice (high anxiety phenotype), 100 µg/kg Selank produced an anxiolytic effect and prolonged plasma leu-enkephalin half-life; in C57BL/6 mice (low anxiety phenotype), it did neither. Strain-dependent responsivity consistent with an opioidergic mechanism.
- 2001Mechanisticmoderate
Semax and Selank inhibit the enkephalin-degrading enzymes of human serum
Kost NV, Sokolov OYu, Gabaeva MV, +3 · Russian Journal of Bioorganic Chemistry
The foundational mechanism paper: Semax and Selank inhibit human serum enkephalin-degrading enzymes in vitro with IC50 values of 10 µM and 20 µM respectively — roughly three orders of magnitude more potent than the standard inhibitor puromycin (IC50 10 mM).
- 2000Mechanisticmoderate
The tripeptide-copper complex glycyl-L-histidyl-L-lysine-Cu2+ stimulates matrix metalloproteinase-2 expression by fibroblast cultures
Siméon A, Emonard H, Hornebeck W, +1 · Life Sciences
GHK-Cu raised MMP-2 levels, MMP-2 mRNA, and TIMP-1/TIMP-2 secretion in fibroblast cultures — and the effect was driven by the copper ion rather than the bare tripeptide. The second-pillar mechanistic primary establishing GHK-Cu as a coordinated matrix-remodelling signal rather than a one-way collagen-deposition driver.
- 1998Mechanisticmoderate
α-Melanocyte-stimulating hormone inhibits the nuclear transcription factor NF-κB activation induced by various inflammatory agents
Manna SK, Aggarwal BB · Journal of Immunology
The foundational in-vitro demonstration that alpha-MSH and its C-terminal tripeptide KPV block NF-κB activation across diverse stimuli — TNF-α, IL-1, phorbol ester, hydrogen peroxide, LPS, ceramide, and okadaic acid — at low nanomolar concentrations, inhibiting IκBα degradation and blocking p65 nuclear translocation in human myeloid and lymphoid cell lines.
- 1988Mechanisticmoderate
Stimulation of collagen synthesis in fibroblast cultures by the tripeptide-copper complex glycyl-L-histidyl-L-lysine-Cu2+
Maquart FX, Pickart L, Laurent M, +3 · FEBS Letters
The foundational mechanistic primary: GHK-Cu stimulated fibroblast collagen synthesis with peak activity at 10⁻⁹ M, independent of any change in cell number — and the GHK triplet sequence exists inside the alpha-2(I) collagen chain itself, suggesting GHK is liberated by wound-site proteases to drive in-situ repair.